M.A. IN SOCIAL ECOLOGY

The M.A. degree in Social Ecology option is available to those students who have been admitted to one of the Ph.D. degree programs in Criminology, Law and Society; Psychology and Social Behavior; or Planning, Policy, and Design. In very rare circumstances a student may be admitted directly to the M.A. degree program in Social Ecology. Consult with the Graduate Student Services Office before submitting an application or for additional questions; telephone (949) 824-5918.

Each M.A. degree student is assigned a faculty advisor with whom the student discusses an individual program of education. The M.A. degree program in Social Ecology requires a thesis and satisfactory completion of seven approved courses (28 units), including the Seminar in Social Ecology (Social Ecology 200), Research Methods (C201, P201, U297, or equivalent), and at least one additional approved course in statistics or methodology. Other courses should be selected with regard to the student's academic and career objectives, and must be approved by the faculty advisor. The seven required courses must include at least five graduate courses and must be exclusive of any directed study, independent study, or thesis courses (Social Ecology 298, 299, or 295). A grade of B or better must be achieved in all courses. Students are advanced to candidacy for the M.A. degree, and a thesis committee is appointed, after a review of their graduate work and thesis plans by a faculty committee.

M.A. IN SOCIAL ECOLOGY WITH A CONCENTRATION IN DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIAL ANALYSIS

The M.A. in Social Ecology with a concentration in Demographic and Social Analysis offers training in the practical research skills needed to address analytical problems confronting society, business, government, and the nonprofit sector. The concentration emphasizes the Pacific Rim and issues defining Southern California's population, such as immigration, changing household and family structure, racial and economic inequalities, and the impact of local and regional population growth. Informed by the interdisciplinary field of demography, the program draws on faculty and courses in the Schools of Social Ecology and Social Sciences.

The concentration in Demographic and Social Analysis offers the option of additional professional certification for doctoral students already admitted to the School of Social Ecology. Admission, core course, and thesis requirements are identical to those for the general M.A. in Social Ecology. In addition,

students must complete 12 units of designated electives in population issues or research methods. Up to two upper-division undergraduate courses may be approved to fulfill the elective requirement. Students interested in this concentration should call the Graduate Counseling Office at (949) 824-5924 for more information.

M.A.S. IN CRIMINOLOGY, LAW AND SOCIETY

The Master of Advanced Study (M.A.S.) in Criminology, Law and Society, the first online degree program of its kind in the University of California system, prepares professionals for leadership positions in the criminal justice and legal communities. The curriculum emphasizes theoretical and practical applications on topics that are central to crime and its control, social policy, and the law. In keeping with one of the main tenets of the School of Social Ecology, faculty and students approach topics from a multidisciplinary perspective.

This program is ideally suited for professionals interested in or working in the criminal justice or legal fields who are seeking a graduate degree for career advancement. The program consists of 52 units of course work completed over a two-year period (six quarters) plus a one-week in-residence requirement during the first summer. In lieu of a thesis, students are required to take a capstone course in the winter quarter of the second year of study. A degree is awarded upon completion of 10 required courses, plus three elective courses. One traditional face-to-face course taken on the UCI campus, in an accelerated format (five days), is required at the beginning of a student's course of study, with the remaining courses all completed online.

MASTER OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

The Master of Urban and Regional Planning (M.U.R.P) provides students with a rigorous intellectual foundation and critical analytical skills that prepare them to work as public, private, and non-governmental planners. The program is fully accredited by the national Planning Accreditation Board and has 17 core full-time faculty. Students gain knowledge of planning problems and practices through a series of courses related to the environmental, economic, and social challenges in Southern California, and the United States, as well as other national contexts.

A total of 72 graduate units are necessary to satisfy the Master's degree requirements—40 units of core courses and 32 units of elective courses—and successful completion of a professional report or comprehensive examination. A normal course load is 12 units per quarter (three courses), which enables students to complete the degree in two years. Required core courses are History of Urban Planning (U202), Theoretical Foundations of Planning (U203), Microeconomics for Policy Analysis (U206), Qualitative Analysis for Planners (U214), Professional Report (U292), and two quarters of Planning Studio (U280A-B). Students are required to take three additional courses from the subject areas of methods, law, and urban settlements, selected from a menu of approved courses to satisfy this requirement.

Students complete eight elective courses to develop an area of expertise within a substantive area of urban and regional planning practice. Some examples of areas of concentration include affordable housing, international development planning, environmental planning, health and social service planning, and economic development, regional growth management, state and municipal governance, community mobilization, urban design and transportation planning. Students work with faculty members to define their concentration and identify appropriate electives. Elective courses should be selected from within as well as outside the Department of Planning, Policy, and Design.

The program supports a diverse set of educational opportunities for master's students. Students are eligible to apply to the Housing Fellows Program and Community Scholars Program. Students are also encouraged to incorporate an international educational experience as part of their degree either through the University of California's Education Abroad Program (EAP) or the Network for European and U.S. Regional Urban Studies program (NEURUS). Practical experience in planning in the form of part-time planning internships is also encouraged.

The range of employment opportunities for planners in the public, private, and non-governmental sectors is expanding due to rapid urbanization, rising concerns over environmental issues, and increases in social inequality. Career paths exist in government agencies dealing with urban planning, economic development, transportation, regional growth management, air quality, water treatment, and public utilities. Employment possibilities also exist with private consulting firms specializing in environmental impact assessment as well as residential and commercial development firms. Finally, planners are increasingly pursuing meaningful careers in the growing non-governmental or third sector. These career opportunities include working with environmental and conservation organizations, community-based organizations, advocacy groups, and labor unions.

Concurrent Master's Degree Program with Civil and Environmental Engineering

The Department of Planning, Policy, and Design (PPD) and the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering (CEE) in The Henry Samueli School of Engineering offer a concurrent degree program that allows students to earn both a master's in Civil Engineering (M.S.) and a master's in Urban and Regional Planning (M.U.R.P.) in two years (instead of in more than three years). The concurrent degree program requires 72 units of study and is organized around two tracks: (1) transportation systems, and (2) environmental hydrology and water resources. The program core comprises 15 graduate courses for the transportation systems track, and 13 graduate and two undergraduate courses for the environmental hydrology and water resources track.

Students choose between a thesis option and a comprehensive examination option. The thesis option requires completion of 72 units of study (eight of which may be taken in conjunction with the thesis research); completion of an original research project and the writing of a thesis to describe it; completion of required core courses; and completion of enough units of approved electives to meet the total requirement of 72 units. The comprehensive examination option also requires completion of 72 units of study as well as a professional report, which represents a substantial piece of planning practice, as the capstone event. These units of study include core courses and enough units of approved electives to meet the total requirement of 72 units, with no redundancy of core courses in either PPD or CEE. Electives may include as many as eight units of independent study or approved undergraduate courses.

The doctoral programs offered by the School of Social Ecology prepare students for academic careers in research and teaching. Graduates also are well qualified for employment in private or government agencies, where they can bring advanced academic training, strong methodological and statistical skills, and special expertise to such issues as environmental design; urban and regional planning; criminal justice; and social policies affecting mental and physical health across the life course. The normative time for completion of the Ph.D. degree is either five or six years, depending upon the specific program.

Each incoming Ph.D. student is assigned a faculty advisor with whom the student should meet at least once every quarter to discuss an individualized program of graduate education.

A student may be formally advanced to candidacy for the Ph.D. degree when all requirements except the dissertation have been completed, and when the student's dissertation plan has been approved by the candidacy committee appointed by the School of Social Ecology, on behalf of the Dean of the Graduate Division and the Graduate Council. The student will appear before this committee for an oral examination. The dissertation plan will include a thorough examination of the history of the problem being proposed for investigation, its current status, the way in which the proposed research will further knowledge, a detailed specification of the proposed method of investigating the problem, and a description of the planned methods for analyzing the data

collected. The normative time for advancement to candidacy is either three or four years, depending upon the program. In no case will students be allowed to advance to candidacy after the end of their fifth year of study.

Formal advancement to candidacy for the Ph.D. degree will be approved by the Dean of the Graduate Division upon recommendation by a unanimous vote of the student's candidacy committee. Alternatively, the committee may recommend a course of action to strengthen the student for advancement to candidacy at a future date. When the student is advanced to candidacy, a doctoral committee will be appointed on behalf of the Graduate Council. The doctoral committee, ordinarily consisting of three members of the faculty, will supervise the preparation and completion of the doctoral dissertation. The dissertation should be completed and accepted within one to two years, and no later than three calendar years after the student's advancement to candidacy.

All Ph.D. students who have not been advanced to candidacy will be formally evaluated by members of the Social Ecology faculty at the end of each year. At that time, the faculty may recommend that the student continue toward the Ph.D. degree, complete the M.A. degree only, or cease graduate studies in the School. Evaluation of Ph.D. students who have advanced to candidacy is the responsibility of the student's doctoral dissertation committee.

Ph.D. IN SOCIAL ECOLOGY

Each incoming student takes Seminar in Social Ecology (Social Ecology 200), Research Methods (C201, P201, U297, or equivalent), two approved quarters of graduate-level statistics, one additional approved research methods course, and six elective courses, chosen in consultation with the faculty advisor. The normative time for completion of the Ph.D. is five years, and the maximum time permitted is seven years. Students are encouraged to become involved in research in their first year of study by participating in the research projects of the faculty. Students complete a supervised research project before they begin work on their doctoral dissertation. Research is broadly construed to include experimental methods, questionnaire and interview studies, systematic field observation, secondary analyses, and legal analyses. This predissertation research project should be completed during the second year in residence and must be evaluated and approved by a committee of three faculty members. Those students pursuing the Epidemiology and Public Health concentration must select six electives in epidemiology and public health, in consultation with their advisor, from the following list: E225, E226, E227, E248, E250, E251, Epidemiology 205, Epidemiology 244 (same as Public Health 276), Social Ecology 261, and Social Ecology 275.

Students complete the breadth requirement during their third year of study. This is accomplished through successful completion of either a written comprehensive examination or the submission of a major paper or series of papers that intensively examine specific substantive problems and bodies of research. Preferably, the perspective taken should be multidisciplinary, but a single disciplinary approach is acceptable if it is more congruent with the student's educational goals and is acceptable to the student's committee. Each student's plans for completing the breadth requirement are developed in collaboration with a committee of three Social Ecology faculty members. Students are encouraged to meet with this committee as early as possible during their graduate career and are required to do so no later than the third quarter of their second year. When the student's plans have been approved and implemented, the examining committee will determine whether the breadth requirement was successfully completed, and will recommend additional academic work if it is deemed necessary. The normative time for advancement to candidacy is three years. The fourth, and possibly fifth, years of study are devoted to developing and defending a dissertation proposal and conducting dissertation research.

Ph.D. IN SOCIAL ECOLOGY WITH A CONCENTRATION IN ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

The doctoral concentration in Environmental Analysis and Design prepares students to conduct research on questions of vital importance to professionals in environmental analysis and evaluation and on related questions on the formulation of environmental and health policy. These questions reflect an overarching concern with the effects of the natural and built environments on the health and social well-being of humans.

This doctoral concentration particularly focuses on insights from a social ecological perspective. One of the concentration's strengths is its research sequence which spans the disciplines within the School. Students are encouraged to take classes across the campus to improve their knowledge of related fields as well.

Students conduct analyses of sociocultural, behavioral, biological, chemical, and physical factors that influence health and well-being of humans, including public and private sector policy as well as the environment as a whole. They are also trained to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions designed to enhance the health of individuals and the community as a whole. The curriculum and diversity of faculty within the concentration afford unique opportunities for multidisciplinary research and training.

Potential employment sources for graduates include academic and research institutions; state and federal agencies; policy-making organizations; national, community, and workplace health-promotion programs; and a diverse range of consulting firms ranging from engineering to design.

Each incoming student takes the five core courses required of most Ph.D. students, noted earlier, and eight elective courses drawn from the focal areas within this concentration. The elective courses cover topics such as environmental health risks, behavioral epidemiology, demography, and technological hazards and change. The normative time for completion of the Ph.D. is five years, and the maximum time permitted is seven years. Students are expected to become involved in research activities in their first year of graduate study. Students complete a supervised research project before they begin work on their doctoral dissertation. This predissertation research project should be completed during the second year in residence (preferably by the end of the winter quarter of the second year). The research project must be evaluated and approved by a committee of three faculty members. Students complete the breadth requirement, described earlier, during their third year of study. The normative time for advancement to candidacy is three years. The fourth and fifth years of study are devoted to developing and defending a dissertation proposal and conducting dissertation research.

Ph.D. IN CRIMINOLOGY, LAW AND SOCIETY

The study of crime, institutional responses to illegal behavior, and the interaction of law and society are the foci of the doctoral program in Criminology, Law and Society. Students examine issues related to the etiology of crime, the process of changing criminal behavior, social regulation, the civil justice system, and the social and cultural context of law.

Students gain familiarity with a number of subjects including sentencing; crime rates; modes of modifying criminal behavior; police behavior; white collar and organized crime; policies against hate crimes; behavior of courts, juries, and regulatory agencies; environmental law; immigration lawmaking; Native American justice issues; and the interaction among law, culture, and identity. In general, students are introduced to the leading classical and contemporary issues in criminology, law and society and to ways of understanding them through interdisciplinary research. The program aims to develop theoretical

sophistication and to prepare the graduate student for faculty positions at major universities; and for research and administrative work in institutions in the legal system, the criminal justice system, and related organizations.

In addition to the four core courses required of most Ph.D. students (Social Ecology 200, two additional quarters of graduate-level statistics, and one additional approved research methods course), students take at least five required courses, Research Methods (C201), Crime and Public Policy (C230), Theories of Crime (C235), Legal Reasoning (C237), and Law and Society (C239), and three elective courses in Criminology, Law and Society. These elective courses should be chosen in consultation with the student's faculty advisor. Students become involved in research activities from the earliest stages of their training and complete an independent, supervised research project during the second year of graduate study. Methods of research may include questionnaires and surveys, systematic field observation, computer simulation, legal analyses, and archival research. Students complete a written comprehensive examination during year three, which requires them to demonstrate mastery of major theoretical, substantive, and methodological issues in criminology, law and society. The normative time for advancement to candidacy is four years (three years for students who entered with a master's degree). Students are required to advance to candidacy by the end of fall quarter of their fifth year of study, adjusted for any approved leaves of absence. The fourth and, possibly, fifth years of study are devoted to developing and defending a dissertation proposal and completing dissertation research. The normative time for completion of the Ph.D. is six years, and the maximum time permitted is seven years. (For students who have waived two required courses and the second-year project based upon master's-level work completed at another institution, the time to degree is five years, with a maximum of six years.) All Ph.D. students in the Criminology, Law and Society program are required to pass a final oral defense of the dissertation. Opportunities for field placements in legal and criminal justice settings also are available.

Ph.D. IN PLANNING, POLICY, AND DESIGN

The Planning, Policy, and Design doctorate program trains scholars to have national and international prominence in the analysis of social problems related to the built and natural environments. Faculty strengths span planning, policy, and design, and faculty are at the cutting edge of teaching and research that examines the interplay of these three currently distinct approaches.

There is a growing recognition that many pressing social problems require perspectives that combine an understanding of planning, policy process, and the built environment. For example, efforts to control transportation problems by building neighborhoods that encourage alternatives to the automobile require an understanding of travel behavior and human interactions with the built environment. Understanding how to reduce tobacco use requires an appreciation of how behavior is shaped by programmatic interventions, community settings and norms, and policy tools. Environmental cooperation across national borders often requires understanding of political processes, infrastructure systems, and metropolitan structure and governance in regions, such as the U.S.-Mexico border, where population is concentrated in urban settlements that span the border. And, issues of public safety are increasingly related to the design of public and private spaces, and how those spaces are used and regulated.

In all of these areas, public and private officials are increasingly working on topics that span the boundaries of several traditional academic disciplines. The PPD program is designed to give students a strong background in one of four specializations and thus to produce scholars and practitioners capable of responding to the complexity of problems facing contemporary society.

The PPD program offers four specializations—urban and community development, design-behavior research, environmental policy, and health promotion and policy. Urban and Community Development examines contemporary planning approaches to managing local, community, and regional development. Students explore the spatial dynamics of urbanization in diverse settings and how public policy can guide urban and regional growth to balance environmental and economic concerns. Design-Behavior Research investigates the inter-relationships of people and their socio-physical environments at all scales, from micro to macro, with emphasis on urban design and community-scale issues. The School of Social Ecology is an international leader in environment design research since the field's earliest developments. Environmental Policy focuses on the environment and natural resources as important policy and planning issues. A clear understanding about how politics, economics, ethics, and institutions affect planning and policy choices is the emphasis of this specialization. The School has among the largest concentrations of environmental policy faculty of any planning department in the United States. Health Promotion and Policy focuses on the interface between planning and community and individual health, examining the public welfare, psychological, and health implications of social and physical planning; and the techniques and goals of public health policy making.

The Ph.D. curriculum is composed of three parts: (1) Planning, Policy, and Design core (required of all students); (2) area cores (each student affiliates with one of four areas of specialization and is required to complete the core courses for that area); and (3) electives. All doctoral students take a total of 16 four-unit graduate courses, distributed across these three types of courses.

Required courses in the Planning, Policy, and Design core are Seminar in Social Ecology (Social Ecology 200); Research Design (U297); two courses in research methods/data analysis chosen from among the following: Data Analysis A (Social Ecology 264A), Data Analysis B (Social Ecology 264B), and Qualitative Research Methods: Overview (U209); and two courses selected in consultation with a faculty advisor that provide disciplinary/theoretical orientation.

In total, PPD students complete 72 units of study in their first two years. Participation in a faculty-supervised research project is required during the second year of study. The second year includes preparation for, and completion of, a comprehensive examination. The normative time for advancement to candidacy is four years. Following this, dissertation research begins. The normative time for completion of the Ph.D. in Planning, Policy, and Design is six years, and the maximum time permitted is seven years. All Ph.D. students in the Planning, Policy, and Design Program are required to pass a final oral defense of the dissertation.

Graduates with a doctorate degree in Planning, Policy, and Design are employed in a wide array of activities, ranging from university teaching and research, to administrative and research-oriented positions in governmental agencies, international organizations, nonprofit organizations, and private consulting practices.

Ph.D. IN PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

The Department of Psychology and Social Behavior offers a Ph.D. program in Psychology and Social Behavior. The main goal of this program is to train behavioral scientists to apply theory and methods in psychology, together with perspectives and knowledge from allied disciplines, to the analysis of human behavior and health across the life span and in diverse sociocultural contexts. This program values both basic and applied research that is relevant to the improvement of individual, community, and societal functioning. Emphasis is placed on the integration of knowledge from several subspecialties in psychology in order to understand the antecedents and developmental course of adaptive or maladaptive behavior and on the conduct of research that has implications for social policies, programs, and interventions.

Training in this program emphasizes four core areas of psychology. The specialization in Developmental Psychology focuses on the development of individuals at various periods in the life course and the effects of varying social and cultural contexts on cognitive, social, and health outcomes. Health Psychology focuses on identifying, evaluating, and enhancing the psychosocial and behavioral factors that promote mental and physical health, prevent disease, and optimize medical treatments. The specialization in Psychopathology focuses on psychological, biobehavioral, and social environmental mechanisms that influence the development, expression, and amelioration of psychopathology and behavioral disorder. Social and Personality Psychology focuses on the interrelations among attitudes, perceptions, motives, emotions, and personality characteristics as they affect individual functioning, interpersonal processes, and intergroup relations. In addition, several faculty offer courses and conduct research in the area of Psychology and

Law, dealing with such issues as the malleability of memory processes, the ability of jurors to understand scientific evidence, the impact on children and adolescents of contact with the legal system, and the response of the legal system to individuals with severe personality disorders.

Students will learn to understand human behavior from a social ecological, contextual perspective. They will be exposed to the major theories in each specialization and learn various social science research methods. All students are encouraged to become actively involved in research from the earliest stage of their training. Through close association with faculty members and participation in the faculty's research projects, students learn to conduct methodologically sophisticated research that addresses contemporary psychological and social issues. Current research teams are investigating stress, coping, and social support; biobehavioral mechanisms of cardiovascular reactivity; psychobiology of stress; personality factors that increase resilience to health threats; parent-child relations; work and family; transitions across the life course; adaptive aging; end-of-life medical decision making; culture and adolescent psychosocial development; cultural influences on social judgment; relations between cognitive and emotional development; emotion regulation; memory and eyewitness testimony; violence and anger management; the development of health-risking and health-protecting behaviors during childhood and adolescence; economic stress and psychopathology/behavioral disorders; health impacts of environmental stressors; mental health and psychopathy; juvenile and criminal justice; positive psychology; and person-environment fit.

All students take eight required core courses: Seminar in Social Ecology (Social Ecology 200), Research Methods in Psychology (P201), Quantitative Methods in Psychology (P264A), Advanced Quantitative Methods in Psychology (P264B), an additional research methods/data analysis course from an approved list, Applied Psychological Research (P209A), Professional Issues in Psychology (P231), and Research Directions in Psychology and Social Behavior (P294A-B-C). The course on Applied Psychological Research (P209A) introduces students to the scientific, professional, and ethical issues involved in conducting and translating psychological research in a variety of applied settings. Some students may wish to take a complementary (optional) course, Applied Psychological Research in Community Settings (P209B), that provides the opportunity for a supervised research internship in an appropriate community setting. The three-quarter course Research Directions in Psychology and Social Behavior (P294A-B-C) allows students to increase their breadth of knowledge regarding contemporary issues and controversies in psychology and social behavior by participating in the Department's weekly colloquium series and interacting with visiting scholars and other speakers.

Students must select one of four core specialization areas in which to further focus their graduate training. Additional course requirements vary across each specialization. For the Health Psychology specialization, Health Psychology (P258) is required, along with two of the following three courses: Health, Stress and the HPA Axis (P272; formerly titled "Psychoneuroendocrinology"), Biobehavioral Bases of Health and Illness (P273), and Psychobiology of Stress (P274). For the Social and Personality specialization, Social Psychology (P214), Personality (P233), and two additional courses from an approved list are required. For the Psychopathology specialization, the following three courses are required: Child Psychopathology (P238), Adult Psychopathology (P239), and Psychological Assessment (P245). In addition, one of the following two courses is required: Mental Health Services and Intervention (P241) or Ecological Context of Behavioral Disorder (P243). The Developmental Psychology specialization requires Developmental Psychology (P220), two life-span courses, plus one additional course from approved developmental electives.

In addition to selecting a core specialization area, students are also required to select a minor specialization and complete one required specialization course and one elective course in this area. The minor specialization and elective courses should be chosen according to the plan that best meets the needs of the individual student, as determined in consultation with the student's faculty advisor and the departmental graduate advisor. In addition to courses offered by the Department of Psychology and Social Behavior and the School of Social Ecology, students may take courses offered by other departments in other schools such as the Departments of Cognitive Science, Anthropology, and Sociology in the School of Social Sciences and the Department of Neurobiology and Behavior in the School of Biological Sciences. Approval from instructors is required to enroll in these courses.

Finally, students who are interested can pursue an optional training track in psychology and law. This track is supplemental to the requirements associated with the required specializations and supplemental to the required minor. That is, all students must complete the above-listed requirements for their specialization and minor. Then, if the student decides to complete the training track in psychology and law, this training is in addition to the requirements listed above. For the training track, a total of four courses must be taken, three required and one elective. The required courses include Social Science and the Legal Process (C245), Psychology and Law (P266), and Legal Reasoning (C237). The elective must be approved by the student's faculty mentor and departmental advisor and can be a course in PSB, or in the School Social Ecology or School of Law, with instructor and school approval.

Students complete a supervised research project during their second year culminating in a paper that may form the basis for a publication. They take a written comprehensive examination during their third year, which requires them to demonstrate mastery of the principles of social ecology and of major theoretical, substantive, and methodological issues in the study of their major and minor specializations and in the psychology of human behavior. The normative time for advancement to candidacy is four years. The fourth year is devoted to developing and defending a dissertation proposal, and the fifth year is spent completing the dissertation research. The normative time for completion of the Ph.D. is six years. Students must complete all requirements for the Ph.D. in Psychology and Social Behavior no later than their seventh year of study, adjusted for any approved leaves of absence that may have been taken. It is expected that most students will complete the degree requirements well in advance of this deadline. All Ph.D. students in the Psychology and Social Behavior program are required to pass a final oral defense of the dissertation.

Potential employment sites for graduates of the program include academic institutions, research organizations, government policy institutes, health care and human services settings (e.g., hospitals, schools, community agencies), and a variety of private sector employers. The Ph.D. Program in Psychology and Social Behavior specializes in the training of researchers, not in the training of clinical practitioners.